Novel biomaterial strategies in electrical stimulation therapy: Recent advances and current challenges

Neurological disorders have a substantial global burden, necessitating innovative therapeutic approaches. Electrical stimulation (ES)-based interventions, including deep brain stimulation (DBS), vagus nerve stimulation (VNS), spinal cord stimulation (SCS), and peripheral nerve stimulation (PNS), have emerged as effective neuromodulation strategies within the field of functional neurosurgery for various neurological and psychiatric conditions. However, challenges such as lead migration, foreign body response, tissue damage, and signal degradation limit their long-term efficacy. Recent advancements in biomaterial science and tissue engineering have led to the development of biocompatible electrodes with enhanced stability, reduced impedance, and minimized immune response. Shape memory polymers, conductive hydrogels, and nanostructured coatings propose promising solutions to improve electrode integration and functionality. Additionally, brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) are transforming neurorehabilitation by enabling precise neural interfacing and neuroprosthetic control, which are hugely improved along with biomaterial innovations. This review explores the clinical applications of ES technologies, the challenges associated with electrode-based therapies, and the potential of biomaterials in optimizing neural interfaces.