Enzyme-driven pathways for FDCA production: Environmental insights into a scalable and sustainable bioprocess

The growing demand for sustainable alternatives to petrochemical-based plastics has positioned 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) as a promising monomer for next-generation bioplastics like polyethylene furanoate (PEF). Among the available routes, enzymatic oxidation of 5-hydroxymethylfurfural (HMF) using 5-hydroxymethylfurfural oxidase (HMFO) stands out for its selectivity and mild operational conditions. This study aims to assess the sustainability potential of FDCA production via HMFO (including also the analysis of the enzyme production), integrating both techno-economic analysis (TEA) and life cycle assessment (LCA) methodology. Four fermentation volumes were evaluated for the HMFO production (5 L–1 m³), showing that the environmental loads decrease with scale-up, being the 1 m 3 scenario the most promising one under an environmental perspective. Regarding the main contributors of the environmental profiles, glucose and cellulose are the process inputs that stand out, while renewable energy and reduced solvent input showed significant improvements in lowering burdens. Regarding the FDCA production, it was modelled both at lab and scale-up levels, including ethanol recycling as a mitigation strategy. In this case, HMF was identified as the primary hotspot across all scenarios and impact categories. On the other hand, the TEA revealed that a minimum selling price of $33.56/kg is needed to ensure that the process is economically viable, with enzyme reuse offering significant potential for cost reduction. Even though the sustainability potential has been demonstrated, both environmentally and economically, further research is needed in terms of enzyme reuse and recovery. • Enzymatic production of FDCA assessed at lab and industrial fermentation scales. • Techno-economic and environmental analysis of HMFO and FDCA bioprocesses. • All modeled production scenarios show environmental improvement with scale-up. • Ethanol recycling and enzyme reuse enhance eco-efficiency and economic viability. • Identified hotspots guide future strategies for scalable FDCA biorefineries.