Ion channel and biophysical properties of extracellular vesicles

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) are a heterogeneous population of lipid bilayer-enclosed particles secreted by nearly all cell types into the extracellular milieu. Once considered cellular debris, EVs are now recognized as biologically active entities capable of transferring proteins, lipids, and nucleic acids to recipient cells, thereby modulating their function and contributing to intercellular communication. EVs play pivotal roles in immune regulation, signal transduction, and antigen presentation. EV molecular cargo reflects the physiological or pathological state of the parent cell, offering potential as diagnostic and prognostic biomarkers in a range of diseases, including cancer, neurodegeneration, and cardiovascular disorders. Traditionally, EVs have been classified into exosomes, microvesicles, and apoptotic bodies based on their size and biogenesis. Recent discoveries have expanded this taxonomy to include novel subtypes with distinct biophysical and molecular characteristics. This review focuses on EVs, with an emphasis on their biogenesis, mechanisms of ionic balance and homeostasis, and the presence and function of ion channels and transporters. We also highlight current methodologies for detecting functional ion channels within exosomes, underscoring their emerging significance in cellular physiology and disease pathogenesis.