Enhancing spatial representativeness and adaptive management of national parks by integrating biodiversity, ecosystem service multifunctionality, and trade-offs

Biodiversity and ecosystem service multifunctionality (ESM) are key considerations in national park development. However, how to integrate these two core elements to underpin national park planning, assessment, and management constitutes a critical scientific question. To address this, the study presents a regional case in the Jinggangshan National Park assessment area, China, employing an ESM index determined by equal weights assigned to four key ecosystem services (ESs): soil conservation, water retention, carbon sequestration, and habitat quality. Based on the "Biodiversity Importance-ESM Importance" framework, we integrated biodiversity indicators, ESM index, and human footprint data to identify priority conservation areas. Meanwhile, we applied Spearman's correlation coefficient to identify the units of long-term trade-offs among ESs and thereby guide spatial planning and management. The results indicated that areas of combined ESM and biodiversity importance spanned approximately 10,000 km 2 , with significant conservation gaps identified in Chaling, Yongxin, and Guidong counties for sites deemed important in both dimensions. A Core Protection Zone encompassing 2565 km 2 , representing 25.0 % of the priority areas, along with a Sustainable Development Zone, has been delineated. The existing PAs demonstrate significant coverage disparities across different counties, with some regions having less than 1.0 % coverage of Core Protection Zones. Within the priority areas, long-term trade-off types include habitat quality-soil conservation and water retention-soil conservation, highlighting the need for customized spatial conservation and management strategies tailored to specific trade-off contexts. By integrating ESM, biodiversity, and human activities, the proposed framework provides a transferable methodology for the establishment of national parks in other regions, thereby enhancing the scientific foundation for conservation planning and sustainable management.