Multimatrix evaluation of heavy metal transfer via Sorghum bicolor L. Moench: Soil-fodder-milk contamination and risk assessment

Heavy metals are among the most persistent and harmful environmental pollutants due to their indegradability, bioaccumulation capabilities, and biogrowth in food chains. This study evaluates the transfer and accumulation of heavy metals across the soil-fodder-milk continuum in semi-urban agricultural systems. This study also aims to provide a comprehensive risk assessment framework for addressing roadside ecological risks, which are common in developing countries. The samples were digested using a microwave-assisted acid digestion and analysed using Atomic Absorption Spectrometry (AAS). All metals in the milk samples were below the accepted values of Zn (1.99-3.16 mg/L), Fe (0.16-0.32 mg/L), Mn (0.01-0.30 mg/L), Cu (0.0001-0.0087 mg/L), Pb (0.001-0.0098 mg/L), Cd (0.0006-0.0092 mg/L), Co (0.0002-0.0080 mg/L), and Mo (0.0001-0.0040 mg/L). Soil quality assessment using the Pollution Load Index (PLI) confirmed minimal contamination (PLI