Therapeutic potential of panax ginseng-derived nanovesicles in osteoporosis through enhanced osteoblast

Background: Osteoporosis is a skeletal disorder caused by an imbalance between bone resorption and formation, which leads to reduced bone density and increased fracture risk. Plant-derived nanovesicles have emerged as safe, biocompatible biomaterials with therapeutic potential for bone regeneration. Methods: -derived nanovesicles (PNVs) were evaluated with a focus on osteoblast differentiation, bone formation, and mineralization. PNVs were successfully isolated, characterized, and tested for their osteogenic capacity using MC3T3-E1 cells, mouse primary osteoblasts, and osteoclasts. Results: Treatment with PNVs (0-10 μg/mL) for 3 or 7 days markedly promoted osteoblastic maturation and matrix mineral deposition, as confirmed by Alizarin-red and Von Kossa staining. In addition, PNVs exposure upregulated key osteogenic genes, including Runx2, ALP, and OPN, while activating major signaling cascades such as BMP2/4 and phosphorylated p38, implying their involvement in osteogenic regulation. Moreover, in an ovariectomized (OVX) mouse model, oral administration of PNVs improved bone microarchitecture by stimulating osteoblast-driven bone regeneration and attenuating osteoclast-mediated bone degradation. Conclusions: Collectively, our findings indicate that PNVs promote osteoblast differentiation and bone matrix formation, thereby enhancing mineralization and demonstrating their potential as a natural nanotherapeutic approach for osteoporosis prevention and treatment.