Per- and polyfluoroalkyl substances (PFAS) analysis in plastics and other polymer-based materials for recycling: Progress, limitations, and regulatory implications

The ever-increasing production and use of plastics is driving the need for recycling as a fundamental component of waste management. The transition from a linear to a circular plastics economy raises new safety and regulatory challenges. Among the chemical families targeted by regulations are PFAS, whose use in plastic products ranges from low molecular weight compounds to macromolecules such as fluoropolymers. Their high persistence and associated risks have led to the evolution of regulatory frameworks and motivated the development of robust analytical tools and methodologies. This critical literature review provides an overview of current methodologies for analyzing PFAS in plastic matrices. The fluorine mass balance approach is presented as a complementary tool to the latest European regulations. Techniques for measuring total fluorine are reviewed in detail and are supported by a summary table of published studies. The speciation of non-polymeric PFAS is examined, from extraction techniques to targeted and non-targeted analyses, with support from summary tables. The contribution of non-polymeric PFAS precursor assays (total oxidizable precursors (TOP) and total hydrolysable precursors (THP)) to expanding analytical capability is discussed, as well as the potential contribution of fluoropolymer characterization techniques. This review on the various aspects of fluorine mass balances in plastics highlights the key areas that require further investigation to keep pace with regulatory requirements and to ensure safer plastic circularity.