Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) use and perceptions of avian scavengers: a survey of livestock veterinarians in Argentina

The dramatic loss of Old World vultures across the Indian subcontinent highlighted the severity of threats facing avian scavengers. Declines, through consumption of livestock carcasses contaminated with the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug (NSAID) diclofenac, resulted in substantial public health costs, with multiple Gyps vulture species now listed by the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) as Critically Endangered. Chronic exposure to NSAIDs is also known to have multiple sub-lethal consequences across several avian taxa. Relatively little however is understood about the NSAID risk to avian scavengers beyond Asia and Europe. This is particularly true of South America, a continent with a vast livestock sector and a distinct diversity of New World scavengers, including the IUCN Vulnerable Andean condor (Vultur gryphus). Here we show, through a questionnaire survey of Argentinian veterinarians distributed online, that multiple vulture-toxic NSAIDs, including flunixin, ketoprofen, and diclofenac, are routinely administered to livestock for multiple purposes. A growing focus on livestock animal welfare has, and may continue to, precipitate rises in livestock veterinary NSAID usage. A majority of respondents reported that carcasses, potentially contaminated with NSAIDs, are left accessible for consumption by avian scavengers in extensive and intensive farming systems. Our results demonstrate that New World scavengers are likely exposed to NSAID residues across Argentina, through multiple different types of livestock. The evidence provided by our research highlights the importance of investigating such exposure further, implementing routine ecotoxicological surveillance of raptors, and of characterising the sensitivity of these avian species to acute and chronic NSAID doses.