Clinical translation of 3D bioprinting in oral and maxillofacial reconstruction: Recent progress and future directions

Oral and maxillofacial reconstruction (OMF) requires regeneration of bone, soft tissue, vasculature, and nerves. Three-dimensional (3D) bioprinting offers a paradigm shift, enabling fabrication of patient-specific, cell-laden constructs designed to restore both anatomical form and biological function. This review presents an updated review on the clinical translation of 3D bioprinting in oral and maxillofacial reconstruction and presents future directions. A comprehensive literature search was conducted in PubMed, Scopus, Web of Science, and Google Scholar for studies published up to June 2025, using search terms such as “3D bioprinting,” “bioink,” “OMF reconstruction,” and tissue-specific phrases. Extracted data addressed bioprinting strategies, biomaterials, and outcomes, which were synthesized into translational phases and tissue-specific applications. Four phases of translational progress were identified: (1) in vitro validation of bioinks and cell viability; (2) small-animal studies demonstrating osteogenesis, angiogenesis, and pulp–periodontal regeneration; (3) large-animal models addressing anatomical scalability and achieving partial functional integration; and (4) early human applications of acellular, patient-specific scaffolds. Success depends on tailoring bioinks—integrating stem cells, biomaterials, and signaling molecules—for tissues such as vascularized pulp, mineralized bone, and the periodontal ligament interface. 3D bioprinting holds transformative potential for OMF reconstruction. While progress is evident from bench to large-animal studies, clinical adoption of viable, cell-laden constructs remains elusive. Overcoming biofabrication, integration, and regulatory challenges through interdisciplinary collaboration will be critical to realize the promise of patient-specific, functional bioprinted OMF tissues in clinical practice. • 3D bioprinting enables patient-specific, functional constructs for oral and maxillofacial reconstruction. • Strategies target alveolar bone, periodontium, gingiva, TMJ, and teeth, among other craniofacial tissues. • Translation is limited by vascularization, neural integration, biomaterial standardization, and regulation. • Emerging solutions include 4D bioprinting, organoids, neurovascular co-patterning, and AI integertaion.