Revealing the multi-dimensional nature and spatial patterns of perceived safety in Athens and Munich

As cities shift from car-dominated transport systems toward more sustainable and inclusive mobility, traffic safety concerns appear to significantly constrain travel behavior changes. However, existing research still overlooks the complexity of safety perceptions of road users. As a result, many micromobility innovations are overvalued as solutions to the last-mile problem, while their actual uptake has been minimal. This study aims to investigate the multi-dimensional nature of perceived safety through a comprehensive spatial analysis in two European cities: Athens and Munich. A modeling framework is applied and extended to estimate perceived safety link scores across four transport modes: private car, e-bike, e-scooter, and walking. The model incorporates four predefined dimensions of perceived safety, combining static road environment characteristics with user-related stochastic parameters that are simulated via Monte Carlo method. Findings show that safety perceptions are not determined solely by road infrastructure design but are strongly influenced by unobserved cultural norms in each city and individuals’ experience. Athens displays lower perceived safety for micromobility modes, but traffic calming measures and shared space interventions seem to be more suitable in this transition stage. On the contrast, Munich exhibits more balanced perceptions now but higher expectations for safety standards. Although perceived safety is inherently multi-dimensional, it can serve as a valuable proxy of accessibility that can guide the transformation of urban road networks.