Dual-crosslinked Flammulina velutipes protein-polysaccharide emulsion gels: Structural enhancement for bioactive delivery and 3D food printing

Emulsion gels face challenges in practical application due to insufficient structural robustness, which limits both bioactive protection and 3D printing precision. To address this, we developed a dual-crosslinked Pickering emulsion gel using sustainable Flammulina velutipes protein-polysaccharide (FVP-FVSP) stabilizers and synergistic GDL/CaCO 3 coagulants. At optimal concentrations (1.5% GDL, 0.75% CaCO 3 ), the gel exhibited a denser network and thicker interface layers, demonstrating superior rheological properties and structural integrity over singly crosslinked controls. Structural analyses revealed protein unfolding and enhanced hydrophobic interactions, contributing to excellent freeze-thaw stability (swelling rate: 4.08%) and water-holding capacity. The robust network provided exceptional protection for co-encapsulated β-carotene and tea polyphenols, significantly improving their bioaccessibility (52.2% and 46.1%, respectively) and antioxidant capacity (>90% ABTS scavenging). Furthermore, the gel exhibited excellent shear-thinning and elastic recovery, enabling high-fidelity 3D printing with a 96.22% Shape Fidelity Score. This work validates the dual-crosslinking strategy and positions the FVP-FVSP emulsion gel as a versatile platform for advanced nutraceutical delivery and precision food manufacturing.