Biological responses to underwater noise in marine ecosystems: A systematic review of taxon-informed threshold ranges

Anthropogenic underwater noise is an increasingly important stressor in marine ecosystems, yet existing regulatory frameworks remain focused largely on marine mammals. This review synthesized evidence from 130 experimental studies across multiple marine taxa and noise-source categories. Research effort was concentrated on fish (48%) and marine mammals (34%), whereas invertebrates remained underrepresented (13%). Adult life stages dominated the literature, while early life stages accounted for only 6% of observations. Behavioral responses were the most frequently reported endpoint (54%), followed by physiological, hearing, injury/mortality, and developmental effects. Response patterns differed by noise type: continuous noise was more commonly associated with behavioral and physiological responses, whereas impulsive noise was more frequently linked to injury or mortality. Current benchmark systems remain limited for many invertebrates and early life stages. Despite the predominance of laboratory studies, restricted taxonomic coverage, and substantial variability among species and experimental approaches, the available evidence highlights the need for more taxon-resolved exposure standards and reveals critical knowledge gaps for understudied taxa, habitats, and sensitive life stages. • LOEL and NOEL values were compiled for fish and invertebrates across major noise sources. • Thresholds were often lower than current criteria when sublethal endpoints were considered. • Sensitivity patterns differed by noise type, taxon, life stage, and habitat. • Continuous noise acted at lower thresholds, whereas impulsive noise caused stronger impacts. • Findings support taxon-specific standards beyond marine mammal-focused regulations.