Recent progress in green synthesis of bioinspired nanoceria for therapeutic applications

With the rapid development of nanobiotechnology, green synthesis of cerium oxide nanoparticles (CeNPs) and their hybrid systems has emerged as a promising strategy for designing functional materials with tunable physicochemical and biological properties. This review focuses on the relationships among structure, processing, properties, and function of green and hybrid nanoceria, emphasizing how synthesis routes derived from plant, food, and microbial sources govern surface chemistry, defect states, and redox behavior. Particular attention is given to the Ce 3+ and Ce 4+ redox cycling, which enables catalytic regulation of oxidative stress and underlies key functionalities such as antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory, and regenerative effects. In addition, bio-derived surface coatings and hybrid architectures are discussed as critical design parameters that enhance interfacial interactions, stability, and biological performance. By integrating insights from synthesis strategies, material structure, and functional outcomes, this review highlights the design principles that distinguish green-synthesized CeNPs from conventional counterparts. Finally, current challenges, including toxicity evaluation, biodistribution, and scalability, are critically analyzed to outline future directions for the rational design of CeNP-based materials in advanced biomedical and engineering applications.