Environmental and public health risks of antibiotic resistance gene pollution in poultry systems: Sustainability impact, transmission pathways, and mitigation strategies

The overuse of antibiotics in poultry farming for disease prevention, growth promotion, and therapeutic purposes has resulted in widespread contamination of poultry systems with antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs). This review identifies critical sources of ARGs, including poultry manure, wastewater runoff, soil contamination, airborne dissemination, and genetic transfer mechanisms. ARGs persist across agricultural systems, fueling the spread of multidrug-resistant bacteria and posing significant risks to ecosystems, animal health, and human populations. Our analysis highlights the effectiveness of various mitigation strategies, such as composting, anaerobic digestion, and advanced wastewater treatment, in reducing ARG loads. However, we find that current waste management approaches are insufficient to fully prevent the spread of resistance. We emphasize the importance of reducing antibiotic usage through stewardship programs, alternative treatments, and robust legal frameworks. Additionally, the review underscores the need for integrated policy actions, rigorous monitoring, and the adoption of sustainable agricultural practices to curb ARG pollution. Looking forward, we call for research advancements in probiotics, vaccines, and innovative treatment technologies to enhance the reduction of ARG contamination. Ultimately, controlling ARG pollution requires a multifaceted approach that combines scientific innovation, effective policy enforcement, and increased public awareness to address the growing global threat of antimicrobial resistance. • Tracks ARG transmission via manure, water, soil, air, crops, contact. • Explains horizontal and vertical gene transfer driving resistance. • Reviews health risks: resistant infections, ecosystem disruption.