Plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles: From biological characteristics to precision medicine applications as multifunctional delivery platforms

Exosomes are highly efficient drug carriers with biocompatibility, low immunogenicity, and strong targeting potency. The recent discovery of plant-derived exosome-like nanovesicles (PELNs) has led to substantial breakthroughs in this field. Compared to animal-derived exosomes, PELNs have a broad range of sources, low cost, high safety, and better stability, making them ideal alternatives. This review highlights the advantages of PELNs as next-generation drug carriers through a comparative analysis. We systematically reviewed the biological characteristics of PELNs, including isolation methods and functional diversity, across different sources. Furthermore, we delineate drug-loading approaches, classify PELNs based on their carrier roles, and discuss nanoplatform-based delivery systems. Drawing on existing research, we summarize the advancements in the therapeutic utility of PELNs against various diseases, providing insights into their developmental trajectory and challenges.