A methodological framework for the optimization of agro-energy systems within the water–energy–food nexus

As pressure on water, energy, and food systems intensifies, integrated approaches such as the Water-Energy-Food (WEF) nexus are crucial for addressing sustainability trade-offs. This paper proposes a methodological framework for optimizing agro-energy systems within the WEF nexus by coupling land-use decisions, irrigation pumping, and hourly energy system operation at the community scale. The proposed nonlinear optimization model simultaneously minimizes total annualized cost, reduces crop-specific water consumption, and maximizes employment generation, thereby addressing economic, environmental, and social objectives within a unified formulation. A weighted-sum multi-objective approach is used to characterize trade-offs and identify balanced solutions under annual resource constraints. The framework is validated through a rural case study designed by the authors, representative of non-interconnected agricultural communities. Results show that, relative to a single-objective cost-minimization solution, the multi-objective configuration reduces crop-specific water intensity by 97% and nearly doubles employment with only a 16% increase in total annualized cost, at the expense of moderately higher CO 2 emissions. These outcomes highlight explicit and quantifiable trade-offs between water efficiency, employment, and energy-related emissions. By integrating land allocation, water delivery, and energy system operation within a single optimization layer, the proposed approach extends existing WEF studies that focus on sector-specific or farm-level interactions. Overall, the results demonstrate the potential of integrated, community-scale WEF optimization to support transparent and context-sensitive decision-making for sustainable rural development.