Nanocarrier-based strategies for advanced cancer drug delivery and therapeutics: Design principles, biological interactions, and clinical potential

Cancer continues to pose a significant challenge owing to its biological heterogeneity, drug resistance, and the toxicity of conventional treatments. Nanotechnology has emerged as a transformative approach in oncology, offering advanced platforms for targeted drug delivery, imaging, and multimodal therapy. Diverse nanocarriers—including liposomes, polymeric nanoparticles, dendrimers, micelles, solid lipid nanoparticles, and inorganic systems—possess unique physicochemical properties that enhance tumor permeability, enable controlled or stimuli-responsive drug release, and reduce systemic toxicity. Theranostic nanoparticles further integrate diagnostic and therapeutic functions, supporting the shift toward personalized cancer treatment. Recent clinical progress, including liposomal chemotherapies, mRNA-based immunotherapeutic nanoparticles, and inorganic radiosensitizers, underscores their translational potential. This review critically evaluates the mechanisms, therapeutic applications, recent advances, and limitations of nanoparticle-based cancer therapies and highlights future directions to facilitate their clinical translation.