Comparative assessment of potential for plus-energy buildings: A case study of cities in North Dakota, United States

Plus-Energy Buildings (PEBs) are gaining importance in the pursuit of climate neutrality. The proportion of solar energy as a renewable energy source is also increasing. This article assesses the practicality of PEBs and appropriate installation angles to ensure optimal performance of the photovoltaic (PV) panels in the cold climate of North Dakota, United States. In the evaluated scenarios, with appropriate sizing of the PV and a reduction in energy consumption profile, the contribution ratios are above 1.0, and a PEB could be achieved in the study locations. The result shows that the annual amount of electrical demand covered by PV power output varies from 42% to 67% according to the seasonal variations of PV-load correlation. Additionally, there was an annual energy autonomy of 40%, satisfactory load-matching indices, and approximately a 40% decrease in global warming potentials. Due to North Dakota's lower levels of solar radiation, the building's energy balance is negative throughout the winter. This work highlights the significance of the system dynamics (SD) approach in establishing the energy interaction between the building, grid, and PV modeling using local climatic conditions in Vensim software. The study contributes to the literature by examining the adequacy of solar energy in cold climates and appropriate scenarios for building to achieve PEB using an SD approach. Finally, we present future research priorities to promote the adoption of PEBs.