Natural and modified zeolites for antibiotic removal from wastewater: Mechanisms, modification techniques, and future perspectives

The extensive use of antibiotics in human medicine, livestock production, and aquaculture has led to their widespread occurrence in aquatic environments, posing risks to both ecosystems and public health. Conventional wastewater often show limited efficiency, lack selectivity, and face operational challenges such as high energy demand, fouling, and formation of toxic by-products. In this context, zeolites, a class of microporous aluminosilicate minerals, have emerged as promising adsorbents for antibiotic removal. This review critically evaluates antibiotic adsorption using natural and modified zeolites, focusing on adsorption mechanisms, performance in realistic water matrices, and comparative assessment of modification strategies. Acid treatment, surfactant functionalization, and metal ion or metal oxide incorporation are examined with emphasis on their effects on selectivity, adsorption capacity, and interaction pathways. Evidence indicates that modified zeolites generally achieve higher efficiencies in single-pollutant systems, whereas natural zeolites demonstrate greater robustness under complex wastewater conditions. This review provides an integrated perspective linking adsorption mechanisms, performance, and feasibility to support the development of scalable zeolite-based technologies. • Natural and modified zeolites are effective adsorbents for antibiotic removal. • Zeolite modification enhances selectivity and adsorption capacity. • Adsorption kinetics, isotherms, and mechanisms are critically reviewed. • Challenges and future directions for sustainable zeolite-based treatment are identified.