Smart drug nanoparticles from microbes and their drug delivery

Microbial synthesis of nanoparticles (NPs) has attracted growing attention as a sustainable and biologically driven alternative to conventional physicochemical routes. The inherent ability of microorganisms such as bacteria, fungi, and algae to reduce metal ions and stabilize the resulting NPs through enzymatic and metabolite-mediated pathways enables the production of nanostructures with unique physicochemical and biological properties. This review focuses on the mechanisms involved in microbial derived nanoparticles (MNPs) synthesis, emphasizing their potential applications in drug delivery, antimicrobial therapy, and diagnostic systems. The biosynthetic process is not only cost-effective and environmentally benign but also facilitates intrinsic surface functionalization that enhances stability and biocompatibility compared with chemically synthesized NPs. In addition, the microbial approach provides opportunities for controlled nanoparticle morphology, tunable size, and surface charge modification—key parameters influencing therapeutic efficacy. Nevertheless, current challenges such as scalability, yield optimization, and mechanistic standardization must be addressed to realize consistent production and clinical applicability. Recent advancements integrating molecular genetics, bioinformatics, and nanoengineering tools are improving our understanding of microbial metabolic pathways and their role in NPs biosynthesis. Looking ahead, multidisciplinary collaborations involving microbiology, nanotechnology, and biomedical sciences are essential to translate microbial nanoparticle research from laboratory investigations to practical and industrial implementations, supporting a new generation of safe and sustainable nanomaterials.