Appetite regulation following energy restriction with almond-enriched vs. nut-free diets - a randomised controlled trial

) were randomised to consume AL (n = 68) or SB (n = 72) during weight loss (WL) and weight maintenance (WM) diets. Fasting and postprandial appetite hormones and subjective appetite ratings (over 120 min) were measured at baseline (BL), after WL and after WM. Buffet meal energy intake was recorded at 150 min. Fasting ghrelin decreased in AL and increased in SB (group x time, p = 0.011), while leptin had a greater increase in AL versus SB post-WM (group x time, p = 0.001). Fasting glucagon and pancreatic polypeptide (PP) were consistently higher in AL compared to SB at each time point (group, p < 0.001). Fasting cholecystokinin (CCK), glucagon and leptin decreased (p < 0.001), while glucose-dependent insulinotropic polypeptide (GIP) (p = 0.004), glucagon-like peptide-1 (GLP-1), PP, peptide YY (PYY), and subjective hunger (p < 0.001) increased over time for all participants, Postprandial AUCs were consistently higher in AL than SB for glucagon and PP (p < 0.001), and GIP and GLP-1 (p < 0.05). Over time CCK and leptin AUCs decreased (WL -11% and -2%, WM -9% and -2%, p < 0.05), GIP and subjective hunger AUC increased over time (WL +17%,WM +12%, p < 0.05). Total and discretionary buffet energy intake declined over time (WL -16%, WM -25%,p < 0.05). Both groups experienced increased subjective hunger post-WL but demonstrated reduced energy intake at the buffet, suggesting effective behavioural adaptations. AL led to more favourable hormonal changes than SB, highlighting its potential appetite-regulating benefits in long-term WM strategies.