Distinct profiles of free speech support and their demographic, ideological, and epistemic characteristics

Background Support for free speech is often treated as a unidimensional construct, overlooking potential heterogeneity in how individuals evaluate different forms of expression. Building on recent multidimensional conceptualizations, the present study examines both the structure and person-centered patterns of free speech support. Method A sample of 563 European participants completed a 24-item measure assessing tolerance of offensive, disagreeing, heterodox, and socially divisive speech, alongside measures of demographics, political ideology, conspiracy ideation, and institutional trust. Confirmatory factor analysis (CFA) and latent profile analysis (LPA) were conducted. Findings CFA supported a correlated four-factor structure but not a higher-order general factor. LPA identified three profiles: conditional tolerance (56.7%), low tolerance (20.1%), and broad tolerance (23.3%). Profiles differed by gender, education, political ideology, conspiracy ideation, and institutional trust, but not age. Broad tolerance was associated with identifying as male, higher education, lower conservatism, higher conspiracy ideation, and lower institutional trust. Conclusion The findings demonstrate that support for free speech is both multidimensional and heterogeneously distributed. As the first study to apply LPA to this domain, it highlights distinct profiles of free speech attitudes and underscores the importance of combining variable- and person-centered approaches.