Multi-hazard climate risks, livelihood losses, and adaptation in Bhutan's high mountain systems: Evidence from household-level analysis

High mountain farming systems are increasingly exposed to multiple climate-induced hazards, yet localized evidence linking hazard exposure, livelihood losses, and household adaptation remains limited in Bhutan. This study examines farmers' perceptions of climate variability, major climate-induced hazards, associated livelihood impacts, and adaptation responses in Bhutan's high mountain systems. Primary data were collected through a cross-sectional household survey of 130 farming households across three districts, and binary logistic regression was used to identify factors influencing adaptation decisions. Results show that 96.9% of respondents perceived significant climatic change, particularly rising temperature (91.5%) and declining rainfall (61.5%), which were associated with increasing risks from glacial lake outburst floods, flash floods, droughts, heat waves, and windstorms. Farmers reported substantial impacts on agriculture, livestock, and local infrastructure, including crop disease, reduced yields, water stress, fodder shortages, and damage to housing and public assets. In response, households adopted a range of mostly autonomous adaptation measures, including the use of chemical fertilizers and pesticides, cultivation of short-duration crops, soil and water conservation, and adoption of recommended crop varieties. Regression results indicate that age, landholding size, farming experience, livestock ownership, and income significantly influence adaptation choices. The findings highlight uneven adaptive capacity among high mountain households and underscore the need for targeted risk reduction policies, institutional support, and community-centered adaptation planning to strengthen resilience in Bhutan's fragile mountain environments.