Life cycle assessment of γ-glycine bio-piezoelectric energy harvesting sensors

Over decades, PZT ceramics have been widely used in numerous applications of energy harvesting across multiple engineering fields. Despite their remark- able piezoelectric properties, the presence of lead (Pb), a toxic element, poses significant human and environmental hazards. In light of the development of a lead-free biodegradable alternative, this study presents a cradle-to-gate life cycle assessment (LCA) of γ -glycine sensors in compliance with ISO-14040 and ISO-14044 standards. It quantifies the environmental burdens corre- sponding to the production of 506 grams of γ -glycine sensors, including raw material sourcing, transportation, and various stages of the manufacturing process. Inventory modelling was performed using OpenLCA in conjunction with the Ecoinvent 3.11 (2025) database, collecting energy consumption and emissions data throughout the process. Impact categories such as terrestrial ecotoxicity, global warming, water consumption, and human carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic toxicity were evaluated using the ReCiPe 2016 Mid- point (H) method. Key emissions identified include 674.03 kBq of Radon- 222, 163.25 kBq of Noble gases, and 11.83 of CO 2 to the air. The study integrated both sensitivity evaluation (Spearman’s correlation) and uncer- tainty analysis using Monte-Carlo simulations to provide more realistic and robust results. This work ensures a foundational understanding of the en-