Multifunctional polyvinyl alcohol/graphene oxide hydrogels loaded with green tea extract: a bioactive platform for antioxidant, antibacterial, and accelerated wound healing

The integration of natural bioactive agents into nanocomposite hydrogels is a promising approach for advanced wound healing applications. In this study, multifunctional polyvinyl alcohol (PVA)-based hydrogels were developed via cyclic freeze–thawing, incorporating green tea extract (Ex) and graphene oxide (GO). GO served as a physical crosslinker, enhancing mechanical strength and structural stability of the hydrogel matrix. Among the developed formulations, PVA/Ex/GO 150 exhibited optimal performance, with superior swelling behavior, minimal degradation, and sustained Ex release (96.46% over 120 h). The mechanical analysis demonstrated a significant improvement in tensile strength (514.56 MPa) and elongation at break (387.36%), indicating enhanced flexibility and durability. The hydrogels displayed excellent biological performance, with cell viability exceeding 85% after 48 h, confirming good cytocompatibility. Hemocompatibility evaluation revealed low hemolysis rates (