Transmission electron microscopy for visualized atomic-scale manufacturing: A frontier in nano-devices

Atomic-scale manufacturing (ASM) is pushing nano-device fabrication toward its ultimate limit of precision, where subtle variations in the arrangement, evolution, and interaction of individual atoms can directly govern device functionality, reliability, and failure. However, the mechanistic understanding needed for ASM remains limited by the difficulty of directly visualizing structural evolution under working conditions. To bridge this gap, transmission electron microscopy (TEM), particularly when integrated with in-situ and in-operando capabilities, has evolved beyond conventional structural imaging into a stimulus-integrated platform that correlates atomic-scale structure, dynamic chemical and structural evolution, and device-relevant behavior in real time. This review summarizes recent advances in TEM-based investigations of nano-devices from three closely connected perspectives: structures, working mechanisms, and failure mechanisms. First, ex-situ (S)TEM approaches for the quantitative characterization of nano-device structures are discussed, with emphasis on heterogeneous interfaces. Next, in-situ and in-operando TEM studies that directly correlate external stimuli with real-time structural and chemical evolution are reviewed, focusing on defect-driven, intrinsic-structure-governed, and interface-mediated working mechanisms in representative information and energy devices. Finally, TEM-based analyses of failure in nano-devices under electrical, mechanical, and multi-field stimuli are summarized, highlighting how TEM reveals the transient and localized structural evolution leading to failure at the atomic scale. Overall, this review demonstrates the pivotal role of TEM in linking atomic-scale structure, stimulus-driven dynamics, and nano-device behavior, and underscores its emerging role as a platform for visualizing and enabling ASM.