A comprehensive review of lead acid battery end-of-life management: Future perspectives and guidelines

Lead-acid batteries (LABs), originally developed in the mid-19th century, remain a cornerstone of energy storage solutions across various applications, including backup power systems, industrial equipment, and electric vehicles. Despite the emergence of alternative battery technologies, LABs continue to dominate the market due to their affordability, reliability, and established recycling infrastructure. In 2018, LABs accounted for approximately 70% of the global rechargeable battery market, with sales projected to reach $72.7 billion by 2030. However, the improper disposal of LAB waste poses significant environmental and health risks, particularly in regions like Brazil. This paper presents a comprehensive analysis of the end-of-life (EOL) management of LABs, focusing on the development of a stochastic optimization model aimed at enhancing supply chain resilience and optimizing financial resources for waste management operations. Additionally, the study explores innovative recycling methods, such as the reuse of polyethylene separators in composite materials, which can mitigate soil and groundwater contamination. By integrating circular economy principles and advocating for improved regulatory frameworks, this manuscript aims to provide guidelines for sustainable LAB and its EOL management that not only protect public health and the environment but also contribute to economic growth. The findings underscore the necessity for strategic management and effective recycling practices to address the challenges associated with LAB waste and EOL, ensuring a greener future for energy storage technologies.