Assessing whale-watching compliance: A replicable framework for international–national correspondence in continental America

Whale-watching is a rapidly expanding tourism activity with significant ecological and socioeconomic importance worldwide, yet it lacks standardized compliance assessment tools for it. This study introduces a replicable framework combining a Normalized Compliance Index (NCI) and an Own Guidelines Index (OGI) to evaluate adherence to International Whaling Commission (IWC) guidelines across 13 American territories, and an interaction (INT) and gap analysis between them. The framework assesses 42 IWC principles, including minimum approach distances, speed limits, noise reduction protocols, time restrictions on interactions, proper vessel approach methods, among others. Results reveal strong heterogeneity, no country achieved full compliance, with NCI scores ranging from 0.30 (Brazil) to 0.68 (Panama), and OGI values spanning from 0.00 to 0.82. The Interaction Index (INT) further showed varying degrees of correspondence between international and national frameworks, while the Gap analysis quantified regulatory discrepancies. Mexico displayed intermediate values (NCI=0.49, OGI=0.45, INT=0.47, Gap=0.04), reflecting progress but also shortcomings in specific measures. The proposed framework constitutes a practical tool for policymakers to identify regulatory gaps and strengthen adaptive governance. Ultimately, our findings underscore that international frameworks such as the IWC may be more effective when complemented by robust local governance, offering a pathway toward sustainable whale-watching practices.