Gender-responsive climate-smart agriculture for sustainable and resilient livelihoods in Southern Ethiopia

Genuine sustainability in agriculture arises from the interplay of economic accessibility, gender equality, and institutional change. Climate-smart agriculture (CSA) is often advocated as a means to improve productivity and resilience; however, evidence on its gender-specific effects in the context of endogenous adoption and multidimensional sustainability remains rare. This study examines the factors and effects of gender-sensitive CSA on sustainable livelihoods in Southern Ethiopia. A mixed-methods approach was used to collect primary data from 300 rural households in the Halaba and Gedeo districts, supplemented by Key Informant Interviews and Focus Group Discussions. The study employs an Endogenous Switching Regression (ESR) model, enhanced by Propensity Score Matching and Instrumental Variable techniques, to correct for selection bias and evaluate causal impacts on livelihood outcomes. The findings indicate that education, access to extension services, availability of credit, and climate awareness significantly affect CSA adoption. In contrast, poverty, infrastructure limitations, and gender-related resource disparities reduce the likelihood of adoption. While male-led households show higher adoption rates, female-led households achieve greater incremental benefits in income, food security, and empowerment. CSA adoption greatly enhances household income and food security, increases women's decision-making influence, and alleviates time constraints, illustrating a strong linkage across the economic, social, and environmental aspects of sustainability. Counterfactual analysis suggests that nonadopters miss out on significant welfare gains, emphasizing the cost of delayed adoption. CSA methods such as improved crop varieties, small-scale irrigation, conservation farming, agroforestry, composting, and energy innovations significantly improve livelihood outcomes (p < 0.05). Adoption increases income by 10–12%, boosts food security, lessens women's workload, and encourages empowerment. The results highlight that CSA is a strategy that boosts productivity and provides a gender-sensitive approach to achieving inclusive, resilient rural transformation. The research highlights significant policy implications, underscoring the need for targeted, gender-sensitive measures that expand access to resources, bolster institutional support, and promote equitable participation to achieve sustainable development goals.