Saudi Arabia as a case of water-smart critical minerals: integrating desalination brine recovery with electric vehicle policy

As the global shift to electrification accelerates, lithium has become a cornerstone of the energy transition, powering batteries for electric vehicles and renewable storage. Yet extraction remains intensely water-dependent, whether through open-pit mining, brine evaporation, or so-called direct lithium extraction (DLE). These techniques, while meeting surging demand, exact steep environmental costs, especially depletion and contamination of freshwater in already water-stressed regions. In sharp contrast, Saudi Arabia is advancing a model that redefines the water-lithium nexus. By harvesting lithium from brine produced as a by-product of seawater desalination, rather than from aquifers or salt-flat lakes, the Kingdom is piloting a circular, water-conserving pathway for critical minerals. Utilizing advanced electrochemical separations, this approach eliminates the need for additional freshwater withdrawals and converts industrial waste into a strategic resource. This article evaluates the environmental implications and governance potential of brine-based lithium recovery in Saudi Arabia, positioning the Kingdom as a transformative case in sustainable mineral sourcing. Beyond reviewing conventional extraction routes, the analysis advocates for integrating water-sensitive extraction strategies into global electric vehicle (EV) supply-chain planning and for establishing equitable governance frameworks that align mineral security with ecological responsibility, social license, climate resilience, and long-term basin stewardship at multiple scales.