Encapsulant removal and recovery in crystalline silicon solar modules: A critical review and LCA-based case study

The transition away from fossil fuel-based energy sources has necessitated the adoption of renewable energy sources, with the photovoltaic (PV) industry experiencing significant growth in recent years. As a result, the accumulation of end-of-life (EoL) PV modules has been identified as a major waste management issue due to the lack of efficient disposal and PV recycling practices. The first generation of PV modules, predominantly consisting of crystalline silicon (c-Si) PV modules, has reached their EoL phase, contributing to PV waste accumulation. Polymeric layers, particularly ethylene-vinyl acetate (EVA), are the most widely used encapsulants in the PV industry, with their removal identified as the most critical and challenging step in PV recycling. Mechanical, chemical, and thermal methods are employed for this purpose, with variations in recycling efficiency and potential environmental problems, including toxic emissions and solvent contamination. This study presents a comprehensive review of the properties of EVA, current EVA removal and recycling techniques, and associated challenges, providing valuable insights into sustainable PV waste management. Additionally, a case study evaluates the environmental impacts of key stages in commonly used PV waste management and recycling methods, aiming to identify environmental hotspots associated with encapsulant removal using Life Cycle Assessment (LCA). Disaggregated assessment enables identification of environmental hotspots across waste handling, delamination, and recovery stages. Findings highlight notable environmental burdens associated with EVA removal, particularly within human health and ecosystem quality impact categories, supporting informed decision-making for sustainable PV waste management pathways.