Integrated hybrid SALD-PVD platform for scalable electron contact layer engineering in perovskite/silicon tandem solar cells

The industrial realization of high-efficiency perovskite/silicon tandem (PST) solar cells hinges on scalable, low-temperature fabrication of complex electron contact architectures. Here, we report a hybrid spatial atomic layer deposition (SALD) and physical vapor deposition (PVD) platform that enables the sequential, vacuum-based deposition of AlO x /C 60 /SnO x electron contact stacks over G12 wafer formats. The system integrates a custom-designed linear evaporator into a high-throughput SALD reactor, allowing precise control of layer thickness and uniformity. Real-time ellipsometry provides in-line monitoring, revealing growth delays of SnO x on hydrophobic C 60 . Photoluminescence measurements demonstrate that AlO x passivation significantly enhances quasi-Fermi level splitting. This work establishes a scalable, inline-compatible process for next-generation tandem photovoltaic devices.