Ready to assess? A survey of German pre-service teachers’ traditional and digital formative assessment in physical education

Despite its acknowledged pedagogical value, formative assessment (FA) remains underutilized in physical education (PE). Understanding the factors that support or hinder FA implementation – such as teachers' positive attitudes, knowledge, and self-efficacy in applying both traditional and digital FA – is therefore essential for informing PE teacher education programs. This study investigates German pre-service PE teachers’ ( N = 208) attitudes, knowledge, and self-efficacy regarding FA, and their predictive value for intended use of traditional and digital FA. Results revealed favourable attitudes, knowledge, and technological self-efficacy, whereas FA-related self-efficacy remained low. Attitude and technological self-efficacy emerged as the strongest predictors of usage intention. The findings highlight the need for PE teacher education reforms that systematically embed FA, with a focus on diagnostic competence, practice-based learning opportunities, and a mindset shift toward formative, technology-integrated teaching practices.