Exploring the temporal order of teachers’ attitudes toward inclusive education, inclusion-related self-efficacy, and experiences with inclusion: A longitudinal study

On both theoretical and empirical levels, conflicting assumptions and findings exist regarding the associations between teachers’ attitudes, their self-efficacy, and their experiences with the inclusion of students with special educational needs (SEN). However, empirical insights into the dynamic interplay of these variables over time are still largely lacking. To address this gap, we analyzed longitudinal data from 2419 in-service and pre-service teachers in Germany over four years. We found that experiences were a strong positive predictor of attitudes and self-efficacy of the inclusion of students with SEN. Conversely, self-efficacy was negatively associated with attitude development, while being positively associated with experiences. Furthermore, in-service teachers had more experiences with inclusion but lower self-efficacy and more negative attitudes than pre-service teachers did. These findings highlight the importance of systematically embedding inclusive experiences in teacher education and suggest the need for targeted ongoing professional development to sustain positive attitudes and self-efficacy.