Interpersonal synchronization in face-to-face vs. remote education: An EEG and ECG hyperscanning study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: Interpersonal synchronization is a key component of effective teaching and learning, but little is known about how it differs between face-to-face and remote settings. This study investigates interpersonal synchronization in face-to-face (FTF) versus remote learning (RL) environments through electroencephalography (EEG) and electrocardiography (ECG) hyperscanning. METHODS: Eight groups of 3 students and 1 lecturer (N = 32) engaged in both conditions, consisting of a baseline, a 20-minute lecture, and a 20-minute interactive task. Neural synchronization was assessed using inter-individual Euclidean Distance (EuDist) across five EEG frequency bands (delta, theta, alpha, beta, gamma). Cardiac synchronization was assessed via intersubject correlation of heart rate (ISCHR). Learning outcomes and perception were measured through a series of self-report measures and validated questionnaires. RESULTS: Results revealed a modest but significant effect of learning condition across all EEG bands, with significantly lower EuDist values in the FTF condition compared to RL, indicating higher inter-individual neural alignment when participants were physically co-present. Additionally, task-specific effects emerged in delta, theta, beta, and gamma bands, with interactive tasks generally associated with lower dissimilarity. Furthermore, ISCHR was significantly higher in the FTF condition compared to the RL condition, while no significant task-specific differences emerged. Self-report measures further indicated higher perceived interpersonal closeness and lesson satisfaction in the FTF condition, while learning outcomes remained stable across modalities. CONCLUSION: These findings demonstrate that physical co-presence enhances both cortical and autonomic synchronization during instruction, particularly under dialogic conditions, and underscore the role of embodied interaction in promoting shared cognitive and affective engagement in educational contexts.