New trends in extraction of drugs from environmental water samples

This review critically examines the most relevant extraction techniques for the determination of licit and illicit drugs in environmental water samples, with a focus on developments reported between 2020 and 2025. Particular attention is devoted to solid-phase extraction, including both commercially available and in-house prepared materials, emphasizing the advantages offered by newly developed materials, that also include those from natural sources. Miniaturized approaches are highlighted as a significant trend in extraction methods. Solvent-based techniques are also addressed, with special consideration given to the adoption of greener and more sustainable solvents, such as deep eutectic solvents and ionic liquids, and innovative designs aimed at improving the sustainability of analytical protocols. Furthermore, the review discusses several miniaturized sorptive-based techniques and the novel green and sustainable materials applied to them. The optimization of the protocols for drug determination and the quality parameters achieved when applied to environmental water samples are thoroughly discussed.