The integrated influence of waterfront landscapes on thermal sensation, emotions, and perceived restorativeness from an urban microclimatic perspective

As a core component of the urban ecological system, waterfront landscapes play a crucial role in mitigating urban heat island. Exposure to waterfront landscapes alters individuals' thermal sensation, emotions, and perceived restorativeness. However, the interrelationships among these factors remain insufficiently understood. This study employs virtual reality (VR) as the primary tool to examine the influence of waterfront landscape design elements under varying thermal conditions within a climate chamber. Results demonstrate that: (1) VR exposure significantly intensified thermal sensation—exacerbating cold discomfort at low temperatures and heat discomfort at high temperatures, while improving comfort under neutral to slightly cool or warm conditions. (2) Emotions were jointly shaped by thermal environments and landscape characteristics. Waterfront landscapes generally enhanced positive emotions. In hot conditions, emotional stability declined, but higher wind speeds effectively promoted positive affect. (3) For perceived restorativeness, Being away and Fascination scored highest, followed by Compatibility, while Extent scored lowest. (4) Mediation analysis revealed that thermal sensation influenced perceived restorativeness indirectly through emotions. (5) Design recommendations highlight the preference for near- and mid-waterfront zones where both water and vegetation are visible. Restorative effects were amplified by incorporating red and pink vegetation, employing mass planting for lushness, emphasizing trunk form in isolated planting, and using liner planting to strengthen spatial extension. Overall, this study demonstrates the mediating role of emotion between thermal sensation and perceived restorativeness, offering theoretical and practical insights for climate and restorative waterfront landscape design.