Enhanced maximum power point tracking performance for PV systems in zero-energy buildings: An optimized SVR–TPE approach with hybrid energy storage and real-time capability

Grid-connected photovoltaic systems used in zero-energy building applications are reliable and practically deployable only when maximum power extraction, direct-current link stability, and grid power-injection control are designed and evaluated in a coordinated, cascaded manner. This study presents an integrated three-stage framework. In the first stage, maximum power point tracking is performed using a data-driven support vector regression approach, with automatic hyperparameter tuning via a tree-structured Parzen estimator. The second stage addresses power smoothing and direct-current link stabilization through a hybrid energy storage system composed of a battery and a supercapacitor, together with a two-layer control strategy for intelligent current sharing. At this stage, the impact of tracker model selection on direct-current link voltage stability is analyzed directly, demonstrating that evaluating maximum power point tracking without considering its implications for the direct-current link and the storage subsystem can lead to a misleading assessment of true system performance. In the third stage, power conversion and bidirectional exchange with the grid are ensured by a single-phase inverter equipped with a third-order filter and a modified synchronous reference frame transformation-based control scheme. Simulation results indicate that co-design of the three stages simultaneously improves renewable energy harvesting, reduces direct-current link oscillations and battery transient stresses, and enables grid-compliant power injection and stable power exchange under zero-energy building operating scenarios. • Three-stage co-design links tracking, link stability, and grid-interface behavior. • Support vector regression with Parzen tuning improves maximum power extraction. • Hybrid battery–supercapacitor storage cuts direct-current-link ripple by 52–57%. • Two-layer current sharing reduces peak battery power by 28.9% in transients. • Injected-current harmonic distortion is 0.215–0.251% under grid exchange.