Intensifying droughts, heatwaves, and compound drought–heatwave events and their spatiotemporal patterns in Africa (1979–2024)

Compound drought–heatwave (CDHW) events pose severe threats to ecosystems, agriculture, and human well-being, especially in climate-vulnerable regions such as Africa. However, most existing studies have focused on droughts or heatwaves separately, while comprehensive assessments of CDHWs across multiple scales (continental, climatic, regional, and national) remain limited. Here, using long-term (1979–2024) datasets of maximum land surface temperature and standardized precipitation evapotranspiration index, we developed a suite of heatwave and drought indicators to systematically evaluate their spatiotemporal characteristics and further quantify the distribution and contributions of CDHW events across Africa. Results reveal pronounced upward trends in both heatwaves and droughts, with heatwave seasons significantly lengthened, drought frequency and persistence markedly intensified, and CDHWs accelerating since the 2000s. Notably, CDHW activity peaks in boreal spring and summer, with Eastern and Southern Africa emerging as the most affected regions, underscoring growing exposure to compound climate extremes and the urgent need for targeted adaptation strategies. • Heatwave seasons in Africa show delayed termination, extending exposure beyond global averages. • Drought primarily drives CDHW occurrence and intensity, while heatwaves govern event duration in arid and semi-arid zones. • CDHW activity peaks in boreal spring and summer, forming seasonal hotspots of compound extremes across Africa.