Valorization of cassava peels via hydrothermal carbonization and pyrolysis: A comparison of fuel quality, organic–inorganic dynamics, and thermal behaviour

= 0.90-0.98). Carbon stability increased with increasing conversion intensity, with hydrochars shifting from Class C to B at 240 °C, while pyrochars remained in Class C at 350 °C but reached Class B at ≥ 450 °C. Hydrochars and process liquids produced at 180 °C and 4 h yielded the highest levels of furanic compounds, but levels declined with increasing temperatures. Hydroxyl and C-O groups persisted in all hydrochars and pyrochars (350 °C) but diminished at higher pyrolysis conditions. Scenario estimates suggest that CP-chars could supply 6,631-7,996 GWh annually in coal-fired thermal plants, with lower potential emissions at higher temperatures. The results support CP as a viable feedstock for integrated energy recovery and circular waste management.