The role of Lagrangian drift in the generation of surface waves by wind

A nonlinear stability analysis entirely in the Lagrangian frame is conducted, revealing the fundamental role of the wave-induced mean flow in modifying further wave growth and providing new insight into the classic problem of wave generation by wind. The prevailing theory, a critical-layer resonance mechanism proposed by Miles ( J. Fluid Mech ., 1957, vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 185–204), has seen numerous refinements; yet, the role of Lagrangian drift – the velocity a fluid parcel actually experiences – in wave growth was not understood. Our analysis first recovers the classic Miles growth rate from linear theory before extending it to third order in the wave slope to derive a modified growth rate. The leading-order wave-induced mean flow alters the higher-order instability, manifesting as a suppression of growth with increasing wave steepness for the realistic wind profiles considered. This modified growth rate shows good agreement with experimental observations, explaining the observed steepness-dependent suppression via a single physical mechanism. An integral momentum budget clarifies this mechanism, revealing that the wave-induced current alters the coupling between the total phase speed and the total Lagrangian mean flow at the critical level (as defined in the linear theory), thereby acting to reduce the efficiency of momentum transfer. Notably, this Lagrangian drift is precisely what Doppler-shift-based remote sensing of upper ocean currents measure, providing a direct observational pathway to account for this wave-induced feedback in studies of air–sea coupling. More broadly, this approach can be generalised to analyse other shear instabilities and provides a direct path towards refining wind-stress parametrisations.