Livestock models of maternal nutrition and developmental programming

Developmental programming has emerged as one of the major biological principles and biomedical issues of this century because of its potential for long-term, even transgenerational, effects on the health and productivity of offspring. Livestock models have been widely used to establish the mechanisms of developmental programming in fetuses and offspring, and accordingly present data with dual benefits; both serving animal agricultural purposes and providing insights for biomedical applications. Livestock models have furthered our understanding of how developmental processes can influence postnatal health and productivity in the short- and long-term. In addition, because livestock are key to agricultural sustainability and food security, studies in livestock contribute to human livelihood. In this review, we will focus on the influence of maternal nutrition in livestock models on developmental outcomes. Maternal nutritional models include global nutrient intake (over- and under-nutrition) and supplementation of specific macro and micronutrients. Specifically, we will review the effects of maternal nutrition on: placental function, key metabolic tissues of the fetus/offspring (visceral tissues, skeletal muscle, and immune system), genetics, epigenetics, and transgenerational programming, parturition, and the underlying mechanism of developmental programming. Lastly, we will focus on gaps in knowledge and future research directions.