Latent profiles of masculine norm adherence among U.S. and U.K. fathers: Associations with mental health and father–child relationship quality.

Traditional masculine norms shape the well-being of fathers and how they care for their children. This study used latent profile analysis to identify distinct configurations of these masculine norms. The sample consisted of 740 fathers (Mage = 40.00 years, SD = 7.83 years) of mostly White (68%), Black (18%), or Asian ethnicity (5%), with children aged 5–12 years. The latent profile analysis revealed four distinct configurations of traditional masculine norm conformity: balanced conformers (39% of sample; average or very close to average scores across all dimensions), traditionalist status-seekers (37% of sample; high conformity to norms related to achievement, status, and traditional gender roles), egalitarian nontraditionalists (20% of sample; below-average scores across dimensions), dominating and expressive neotraditionalists (5% of sample; very high conformity to norms related to sexual pursuit, power over women, winning, and importance of work, coupled with low conformity to emotional control and status pursuit). Profile membership was associated with mental health and father–child relationship quality. The dominating and expressive neotraditionalists reported the highest levels of psychological distress and poorest father–child relationship quality; the egalitarian nontraditionalists generally reported lower rates of psychological distress and higher father–child relationship quality. Profile membership was largely unaccounted for by fathers’ demographic factors, including age and socioeconomic status. These findings highlight the importance of recognizing distinct configurations in fathers’ masculine norm conformity, and how these may translate into different strengths and challenges as fathers that can influence paternal mental health and the quality of the father–child relationship.