Hydrothermal synthesis and optimization of hierarchical copper molybdate nanostructures for photocatalytic degradation of crystal violet and antimicrobial applications

Abstract In this work, the Hierarchical Copper Molybdate Nanostructures (HCM) photocatalyst was synthesized via a hydrothermal method and characterized using XRD, FTIR, UV-vis spectroscopy, SEM, TEM, and EDX analyses, confirming the formation of hierarchical nanocrystalline structures with a direct band gap of ~ 2.4 eV. The photocatalytic performance of HCM was systematically evaluated for the degradation of crystal violet (CV) dye under UV irradiation. Experimental design and process optimization were conducted using response surface method (RSM) and ANOVA, which demonstrated that pH, irradiation time, and catalyst dosage were the most influential variables, whereas dye concentration exerted a minor effect. Under optimized conditions (pH 10, 60 min, 15 mg/L CV, and 20 mg catalyst dosage), more than 99% CV dye degradation was achieved. Kinetic analysis demonstrated that the degradation followed a pseudo-first-order model, while thermodynamic studies indicated that the process is spontaneous, endothermic, and entropy-driven. Mechanistic evaluation confirmed that reactive oxygen species (·OH, O 2· , HOO·) generated through electron–hole separation played a dominant role in CV mineralization. In addition, HCM exhibited significant antimicrobial activity against bacterial and fungal strains, supporting its multifunctional potential. Overall, the findings highlight HCM as a highly efficient, low-cost, and environmentally friendly photocatalyst with promising applications in wastewater treatment and environmental remediation.