Functionalized biochar–metal oxide nanocomposites for the catalytic degradation of recalcitrant pollutants in wastewater treatment

. Additionally, carbonaceous nanostructures (CNTs and graphene oxide) enable π-π stacking and delocalized electron mediation for the sensitive detection and transformation of aromatic dye molecules. From a materials chemistry perspective, the innovation lies in tailoring these nano-hybrids at the atomic-to-nano scale, optimizing their mechanical stability, interfacial charge dynamics, and metal-support interactions while comprehensively evaluating their structural persistence and catalytic fidelity under realistic aqueous reaction conditions. AI-directed designs aid in performance optimization. Finally, identifying research gaps, optimizing benefit circulation, and conducting comprehensive life cycle assessment (LCA) are crucial for the effective implementation of these concepts. In this review, these aspects are systematically discussed and highlighted to guide future research directions for the next generation of studies.