Electrosynthesis of 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid from 5-hydroxymethylfurfural: mechanisms, advanced catalysts, and reaction microenvironments

oxidation. Most notably, 2,5-furandicarboxylic acid (FDCA) has emerged as a crucial sustainable alternative to fossil-based terephthalic acid for polyester production. This review provides a comprehensive analysis of the electrocatalytic oxidation of HMF to FDCA. We begin by dissecting the reaction pathways and mechanisms to clarify key kinetic steps and current bottlenecks. To establish benchmarks for the field, we summarize standard evaluation metrics that enable rigorous comparison among disparate studies. The review then systematically categorizes diverse catalyst systems and engineering strategies, with a specific focus on how reaction parameters (pH, electrolyte composition, and applied potential) dictate product selectivity. Concluding with a forward-looking perspective, we propose future directions to accelerate the development of efficient, controllable, and low-cost technologies for FDCA production.