Polymeric microneedles for closed-loop drug delivery: from biosensing to therapy

Polymeric microneedles (PMNs) have emerged as a transformative platform for transdermal drug delivery and minimally invasive biosensing. By combining tunable polymer chemistry, microfabrication strategies, and bioelectronic integration, PMNs enable controlled delivery of small molecules, biologics, and vaccines while simultaneously facilitating real-time monitoring of physiological biomarkers. Recent advances have accelerated the development of closed-loop microneedle systems capable of autonomous sensing, feedback-actuation, particularly for chronic disease management. This review provides a comprehensive and critical analysis of polymeric microneedle technologies, covering polymer classification, material properties, fabrication techniques, mechanical and biological performance, biosensing integration, and closed-loop therapeutic applications. Emphasis is placed on stimuli-responsive polymers, hydrogel-forming microneedles, and glucose-responsive systems as paradigms for next-generation precision medicine. Manufacturing scalability, regulatory considerations, and translational challenges are discussed, alongside future perspectives for smart, wearable, and self-regulated microneedle platforms.