Wearable electrochemical biosensors for sweat uric acid detection: next generation technology for personalised healthcare

Uric acid (UA) is a critical endogenous metabolite that contributes to the regulation of various physiological functions essential for maintaining homeostasis in the human body. Nevertheless, its elevated level causes several diseases that pose serious health issues. Wearable biosensors have gained remarkable interest in personalised healthcare due to their potential for continuous, real-time monitoring of metabolites such as UA in sweat. They offer a non-invasive molecular-level diagnosis of human biomarkers. Nonetheless, rapid sensing and flexibility are the key advantages, making them a superior tool for UA detection. Real-time monitoring of UA in sweat using wearable biosensors is driven toward personalised healthcare management that aims to tackle the potential risk of UA. This review provides a comprehensive overview of the health implications of UA, the importance of wearable biosensors, and the fundamental design and working principles of the advanced wearable UA (bio)sensors. It further discussed hybrid nanocomposites of carbon, MXenes, metal oxides, and polymer-based various types of wearable UA (bio)sensors, including enzyme and non-enzyme-based electrochemical platforms, with a focus on their integration with artificial intelligence (AI) and the Internet of Things (IoT) for smart monitoring and real-time data management. Finally, it highlights the anti-fouling strategy and current challenges for the development of highly sensitive and reliable wearable (bio)sensors for UA detection.