Labour demand, economic profitability, energy efficiency, and greenhouse gas emissions: A comparative assessment of mechanization scenarios across yield gradients in oil palm crops in Colombia

Sustainable intensification of perennial oil palm production systems requires balancing energy efficiency, economic profitability, greenhouse gas emission, and labour requirements. This study evaluated three mechanization scenarios (manual, semi-mechanized with standard capacity equipment’s and semi-mechanized with high-capacity equipment’s) across five yield levels (15–35 t FFB ha −1 yr −1 ; FFB = Fresh Fruit Bunches), based on data from 26 plantations in the Colombian Orinoquia Natural Region. Methodologies included energy analysis, economic evaluation, life cycle assessment of Greenhouse Gas emissions (GHG), and labour demand quantification. Results demonstrate that yield intensification constitutes the primary driver of systemic efficiency, with energy ratios improving from 2.10 to 2.42 and emissions decreasing from 84.8 to 66.3 kg CO 2 t ⁻1 FFB. Semi - mechanized systems contribute directly to intensification by enabling precise input applications and timely execution of agronomic practices, particularly in fertilization and harvesting. Semi-mechanized systes with high capacity equipment’s reduces labour demand by 26–46% compared to manual systems and facilitates scalable operations. It also emerges as the most profitable scenario, with economic viability achieved from 15 t FFB ha ⁻1 yr ⁻1 .