Optimization of green extraction techniques of Ceratonia siliqua leaves compounds

The growing demand for sustainable bioactive compounds, sourced from renewable plant materials, is pushing the development of eco-friendly extraction methods. These compounds, derived from plant sources and agrifood by-products, offer health benefits and promising applications in the food, pharmaceutical, and cosmetic industries, providing a safer alternative to synthetic chemicals with lower environmental impact. Therefore, developing efficient extraction methods for these metabolites is crucial for enhancing product quality and supporting sustainable practices, contributing to European sustainability initiatives and the United Nations’ Sustainable Development Goals [ 1 ]. Green extraction technologies, such as Pressurized Hot Water Extraction (PHWE) and Ultrasound Probe Extraction (USEprobe) have emerged as highly effective alternatives to conventional methods [ 1 ]. These techniques align with the six principles of eco-extraction, which focus on minimizing solvent use, energy consumption and process time, while maximizing the recovery of bioactive compounds. Moreover, these methods offer scalability, making them ideal candidates for industrial applications where efficiency and sustainability are paramount [ 2 ]. In this context, this research focused on the development and optimization of green extraction processes for bioactive recovery from Ceratonia siliqua leaves (CSL), untapped biomass of a typical Italian crop mainly cultivated for its fruits, that have shown promising health-promoting potential. Response surface methodology (RSM) was utilized to optimize extraction conditions by simultaneously analyzing the effects and interactions of multiple parameters. This approach, based on Design of Experiments (DoE), allowed the determination of optimal conditions with a minimal number of experiments, enhancing efficiency and reducing resource usage. Publication History Article published online: 05 March 2026 © 2026. Thieme. All rights reserved. Georg Thieme Verlag KG Oswald-Hesse-Straße 50, 70469 Stuttgart, Germany